General knowledge

A job is only a short-term solution to along-term problem.

*Evolution and growth of Muslim society in the sub-continent*

The last Prophet of Islam, Prophet Muhammad (SAW), completely changed the intellectual outlook of Arabia. Within a span of 23 years he transformed the barbarous and impious Arabs into a civilized and religious nation. During his life and also after his death, Muslims took the message of Islam to every corner of the world and within a few years Muslims became the super power of the era.

Trade relations between Arabia and the Sub-continent dated back to ancient times. Long before the advent of Islam in Arabia, the Arabs used to visit the coast of Southern India, which then provided the link between the ports of South and South East Asia. After the Arab traders became Muslim, they brought Islam to South Asia. A number of local Indians living in the coastal areas embraced Islam. However, it was the Muslim conquests in Persia, including the provinces of Kirman and Makran, which brought the Arabs face to face with the then ruler of Sindh, who had allied with the ruler of Makran against the Muslims. But, it was not until the sea borne trade of the Arabs in the Indian Ocean was jeopardized that serious attempts were made to subjugate Sindh.

Muhammad bin Qasim
During the reign of the great Umayyad Caliph Walid bin Abdul Malik, Hajjaj bin Yousaf was appointed as the governor of the Eastern Provinces. At that time, Raja Dahir, a Brahman, ruled Sindh. However, the majority of the people living in the region were Shudders or Buddhists. Dahir treated members of these denominations inhumanly. They were not allowed to ride horses or to wear a turban or shoes. Sindhi pirates, protected by Dahir, were active on the coastal areas and whenever they got a chance, they plundered the ships passing by Daibul.

During those times, some Muslim traders living in Ceylon died and the ruler of Ceylon sent their widows and orphans back to Baghdad. They made their journey by sea. The King of Ceylon also sent many valuable presents for Walid and Hajjaj. As the eight-ship caravan passed by the seaport of Daibul, Sindhi pirates looted it and took the women and children prisoner. When news of this attack reached Hajjaj, he demanded that Dahir return the Muslim captives and the looted items. He also demanded that the culprits be punished. Dahir replied that he had no control over the pirates and was, therefore, powerless to rebuke them. On this Hajjaj decided to invade Sindh. Two small expeditions sent by him failed to accomplish their goal. Thus, in order to free the prisoners and to punish the guilty party, Hajjaj decided to undertake a huge offensive against Dahir, who was patronizing the pirates.

In 712, Hajjaj sent 6,000 select Syrian and Iraqi soldiers, a camel corps of equal strength and a baggage train of 3,000 camels to Sindh under the command of his nephew and son in-law, Imad-ud-din Muhammad bin Qasim, a young boy of just seventeen years. He also had a 'manjaniq', or catapult, which was operated by 500 men and could throw large stones a great distance. On his way the governor of Makran, who provided him with additional forces, joined him. Also, a good number of Jats and Meds, who had suffered at the hands of native rulers, joined the Arab forces.

Muhammad bin Qasim first captured Daibul. He then turned towards Nirun, near modern Hyderabad, where he easily overwhelmed the inhabitants. Dahir decided to oppose the Arabs at Raor. After a fierce struggle, Dahir was overpowered and killed. Raor fell into the hands of the Muslims. The Arab forces then occupied Alor and proceeded towards Multan. Along the way, the Sikka (Uch) fortress, situated on the bank of the Ravi, was also occupied. The Hindu ruler of Multan offered resistance for two months after which the Hindus were overpowered and defeated. Prior to this, Muhammad bin Qasim had taken Brahmanabad and a few other important towns of Sindh. Muhammad bin Qasim was planning to proceed forward when the new Caliph Suleman bin Abdul Malik recalled him. After the departure of Muhammad bin Qasim, different Muslim generals declared their independence at different areas.

The Muslim conquest of Sindh brought peace and prosperity to the region. Law and order was restored. The sea pirates of Sindh, who were protected by Raja Dahir, were crushed. As a result of this, sea trade flourished. The port of Daibul became a very busy and prosperous commercial center.

When Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, the local people, who had been living a life of misery, breathed a sigh of relief. Qasim followed a lenient policy and treated the local population generously. Everyone had full religious freedom and even the spiritual leaders of local religions were given salaries from the government fund. No changes were made in the local administration and local people were allowed to hold offices - particularly in the revenue department. All taxes were abolished and Jazia was imposed. Everyone was treated equally. Poor people, especially Buddhists, were very impressed by his policies and many of them embraced Islam. A number of Mosques and Madrasas were constructed in important towns. In a short period of time Sindh became a center of Islamic learning. A number of religious scholars, writers and poets were emerged and they spread their knowledge. The Muslims learned Indian sciences like medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Sanskrit books on various subjects were translated into Arabic. During the reign of Haroon al Rasheed, a number of Hindu scholars were even invited to Baghdad.
The establishment of Muslim rule also paved way for future propagation of Islam in Sindh and the adjoining regions. Later Sindh also attracted Ismaili missionaries who were so successful that Sindh passed under Ismaili rule. With the conquest of Lahore by Mahmud of Ghazni, missionary activity began again under the aegis of Sufis who were the main agents in the Islamization of the entire region.

Conquests of Mahmud Ghaznavi
The Arab conquest of Sind belongs to the first phase of Islamic expansion under the Umayyad Caliphs. It was after nearly three centuries that the second phase of the conquest of the sub-continent began under the Turks. The Turkish rulers of Ghazni and later those of Ghur carried Muslim arms across Pakistan and into northern India.
Sultan Mahmud obtained formal recognition of his sovereignty from the Abbasid Khalifah, al-Qadir Billah, who also conferred upon him the titles of Yamin-ud-Dawlah and Amin-ul-Millah. He undertook an expedition every year to Hind and according to Sir Henry Elliot, led as many as seventeen expeditions. The only permanent result of his expeditions was the conquest of the Punjab. However, along with Muslim warriors came Muslim saints and Sufis, who promulgated Islam in India.

Shaikh Ali Hujweri, popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh, renowned sufi who settled in Lahore, wrote the first authentic book on sufism in Persian titled "Kashaful-Mehjub".

Conquests of Muhammad Ghuri

Muhammad Ghuri played a significant role in expanding Muslim rule in northern India. His vigorous and systematic campaigns for the first time roused the Rajput confederacy into concerted action and a real trial of strength ensued resulting in the triumph of Muslim arms.
His important victories remain at the battles of Tarain (1191-92), in which he defeated Prithvi Raj Chauhan, ruler of Delhi and Ajmer. After the second battle of Tarain, Muhammad Ghuri returned to Ghazni and entrusted the charge of his conquered territories to his lieutenant, Qutbuddin Aibak. He soon extended the conquests of his master and made Delhi the capital of the empire (1194).

Muhammad Ghuri was killed by an Ismaili fanatic, while he was on his way to Ghazni from Lahore. He is remembered as an empire builder and is justly called the founder of the Muslim empire in Indo-Pakistan.

On his death, Qutbuddin Aibak was elected Sultan by Turkish Amirs. He, thus became the first Sultan of the newly established Sultanate of Delhi.

Muslim Dynasties of India. [iii] Since the twelfth century AD, several muslim dynasties ruled India. Of these perhaps the Mughals were the most significant. The dynasties are listed below:-

Slave dynasty (1206-1290).
Khilji dynasty (1290-1320).
Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414).
Saiyyid dynasty (1414-1450).
Lodhi dynasty (1450-1526).
Mughal dynasty (1526-1857)
Babur 1526-30,
ii.Humayun 1530-40&1555-56
iii.Akbar 1556-1605
iv.Jahangir 1605-27
v.ShahJahan 1628-58
vi.Aurangzeb 1658-1707

Sufis and the Spread of Islam
The spread of Islam in the Sub-continent is the story of untiring efforts of numerous saints and Sufis who dedicated their lives to the cause of service to humanity. By the time the Muslim Empire was established at Delhi, Sufi fraternities had come into being and the Sufi influence was far more powerful than it was in earlier days under the Arabs in Sindh. The two great fraternities that established themselves very early in Muslim India were the Suhrawardiyah and the Chishtiyah.

Chishtiyah:
Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din introduced the Chishtiyah Silsilah in the Sub-continent. He settled in Ajmer. Because he established the first Sufi Silsilah in the Indian sub-continent, he is often referred to as Hind-al-Wali. Khawaja Muin-ud-din Ajmeri's chief disciple, Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, who lived at Delhi, was held in high esteem by Iltutmush. Baba Farid who was the disciple of Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, decided to settle in Punjab. The Chishtiyah order remained the most popular order during the Sultanate period. This order has extensive influence, particulary in Northren India, Deccan and Bengal.

Suhrawardiyah:
The Suhrawardiyah order was founded by Sheikh Ab-al-Najib Suhrawardi (1097 - 1162) and was introduced into Muslim India by Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya (1182 - 1268) of Multan. With Multan as its center the Silsilah became dominant in the areas that now constitute Pakistan.

Silsila Qadiriya:
Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jelani (1077-1166) of Baghdad is the founder of this sect. In Indo-Pak this sect was introduced by Shah Nematullah Makhdoom Muhammad Jelani in the mid of Fifteenth Centurey. This order has extensive influence in Northren India particulary, in Punjab and Sindh . Allama Iqbal belonged to this sect of Sufism.
Silsila Naqashbandiya: Khwaja Bahauddin Muhammad Naqashband (1317-1389) is the founder of this sect. khwaja Muhammad Baqibillah had introduced this sect in Indo-Pak. Shah Waliullah and Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi popularly known as Mujadid Alf Thani belonged to this sect of Sufism.

Silsila Qalandariya:
This sect was started by the Sufi Sheikh Baba Sultan of Kashmir. A sufi that wanders here and there called Qalandar. Therefore, this sect is named as Qalandariya.

The minimum energy necessary to permit a reaction to take place is
A) K.E
B) Free energy
C) P.E
D) Activation energy