Ak Study

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■ HARAPPAN'S DRAINAGE SYSTEM

◇ Well laid-out streets and side lanes associated with an efficient and well-planned drainage system are other notable features of Harappan settlements.

◇ The sewage chutes and pipes were separate from drains for collecting rain water.

◇ Drains and water chutes from the second storey were often built inside the wall, with an exit opening just above the street drain.

◇ At Harappa and Mohenjodaro, terracotta drain pipes directed waste water into open street drains made of baked bricks. These connected into large drains along the main streets, which emptied their contents into the fields outside the city wall.

◇ The main drains were covered by corbelled arches made of brick or stone slabs.

◇ There were rectangular soakpits for collecting solid waste at regular intervals.

■ GEOMAGNETIC STORMS

◇ The varying conditions in the magnetosphere, known as space weather, are largely driven by solar activity.

◇ If the solar wind is weak, the magnetosphere expands; while if it is strong, it compresses the magnetosphere and more of it gets in.

◇ Periods of intense activity, called geomagnetic storms, can occur when a coronal mass ejection erupts above the Sun and sends a shock wave through the Solar System. It takes just two days to reach the Earth.

◇ At the Earth's surface, a magnetic storm is seen as a rapid drop in the Earth's magnetic field strength.

◇ Ring Current: Ring current is the name given to the large electric current that circles the Earth above its equator during magnetic storms.

■ THE CRUST

◇ The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.

◇ Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (average density of the earth is 5.51 g/cm³).

◇ The thickness of the crust varies in the range of 5-30 km in case of the oceanic crust and as 50- 70 km in case of the continental crust.

◇ The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as 70-100 km thick in the Himalayan region.

◇ The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle.

◇ The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometre in the upper part of the crust.

◇ Outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and below that lie crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature.