Batteries MDPI

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Electrochemical-Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Analysis of Thermal Runaway with Observation on Aging Effects”

by Milad Tulabi and Roberto Bubbico

Batteries 2025, 11(5), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050178

The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by mechanical, electrical, or thermal abuse, which can lead to catastrophic failures. While most TR models focus on fresh cells, aging significantly impacts battery behavior and safety. This study develops an electrochemical–thermal coupled model that incorporates aging effects to better predict thermal behavior and TR initiation in cylindrical Li-ion batteries. The model is validated against experimental data for fresh NMC and aged NCA cells, and statistical analysis is conducted to identify key factors influencing TR (p < 0.05). A full factorial design evaluates the effects of internal resistance (10, 20, 30, and 40 mΩ), capacity (1, 2, 3, and 5 Ah), and current rate (1C, 3C, 6C, and 8C) on temperature evolution. Additionally, a machine learning algorithm (logistic regression) is employed to identify an internal resistance threshold, beyond which thermal runaway (TR) becomes highly probable, and to predict TR probability based on key battery parameters. The model achieved a high prediction accuracy of 95% on the test dataset. Results indicate that aging affects thermal stability in complex ways. The increased internal resistance exacerbates heating rates, while capacity fade reduces stored energy, mitigating TR risk. These findings provide a validated framework for enhancing battery thermal management and predictive safety mechanisms, which contributed to the development of safer, more reliable Li-ion energy storage systems.

Keywords:
thermal runaway; Li-ion battery; modeling; aging; battery safety

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Electrochemical–Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Analysis of Thermal Runaway with Observation on Aging Effects The increasing demand for energy storage solutions, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems, has intensified research on lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery safety and performance. A critical challenge is thermal runaway (TR), a highly exothermic sequence of reactions triggered by me...

Highly Cited Papers in 2025

“Plasticized Ionic Liquid Crystal Elastomer Emulsion-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries”

by Zakaria Siddiquee, Hyunsang Lee, Weinan Xu, Thein Kyu and Antal Jákli

Batteries 2025, 11(3), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11030106

The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural ordering. Specifically, the macroscopic alignment of phase-segregated, ordered nanostructures in iLCEs serves as an ion pathway, which can be solidified through photopolymerization to create ion-conductive solid-state polymer lithium batteries (SSPLBs) with high ionic conductivity (1.76 × 10−3 S cm−1 at 30 °C), and a high (0.61) transference number. Additionally, the rubbery state ensures good interfacial contact with electrodes that inhibits lithium dendrite formation. Furthermore, in contrast to liquid electrolytes, the iLCE shrinks upon heating, thus preventing any overheating-related explosions. The Li/LiFePO4 (LFP) cells fabricated using iLCE-based solid electrolytes show excellent cycling stability with a discharge capacity of ~124 mAh g−1 and a coulombic efficiency close to 100%. These results are promising for the practical application of iLCE-based SSPLBs.

Keywords:

lithium-battery; solid-state battery; polymer electrolyte; liquid crystal; ionic liquid crystal elastomer; plasticizer; alignment

Batteries | Highly Cited Papers in 2025
https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/14579

Plasticized Ionic Liquid Crystal Elastomer Emulsion-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium-Ion Batteries The development and electrochemical characteristics of ionic liquid crystal elastomers (iLCEs) are described for use as electrolyte components in lithium-ion batteries. The unique combination of elastic and liquid crystal properties in iLCEs grants them robust mechanical attributes and structural or...